Creatine is a nitrogen-containing organic compound made naturally in the human body and obtained from animal-based foods, and human research has studied it most often in muscle performance, cognitive health, mental health, sleep-deprivation stress, aging-related muscle outcomes, and multi-ingredient combinations. (Review)
Creatine is best known as part of the body’s short-term energy-buffering system, meaning it helps cells rapidly recycle energy during periods of high demand. Human research is strongest for muscle and exercise-related outcomes, while brain, mood, and healthy-aging questions are active but less settled research areas. Cognitive studies include vegetarian adults, older adults, sleep-deprivation models, and Alzheimer’s disease pilot work, with mixed findings across populations and doses. (Review) Mental-health studies have mostly examined creatine as an add-on to antidepressants or psychotherapy, so this evidence should be interpreted as adjunctive clinical research rather than proof that creatine alone changes mood. (Review)
Ingredient Identity
- Official name(s): Creatine; creatine monohydrate is the most commonly studied supplemental form in human trials. (Review)
- Synonyms: Methylguanidinoacetic acid; N-amidinosarcosine; creatine monohydrate when bound with one water molecule. (FDA)
- Classification: Creatine is a naturally occurring nitrogen-containing compound involved in cellular energy buffering. (Review)
- CAS number: Creatine monohydrate is identified in FDA substance-registration data as a specific listed substance. (FDA)
- Endogenous vs exogenous: Creatine is endogenous, meaning the body makes it, and exogenous, meaning people also obtain it from diet or supplementation. (Review)
Ingredient Snapshot
- Classification: Creatine is a small organic compound that participates in the creatine-phosphocreatine energy system, a rapid energy-buffering system used by muscle and brain cells. (Review)
- Endogenous vs exogenous status: Humans synthesize creatine and also consume it from dietary sources, especially animal-based foods. (Review)
- Primary human research domains: Human studies have evaluated creatine for muscle performance, resistance-training adaptation, cognitive performance, depression-related outcomes, sleep-deprivation stress, and aging-related muscle or bone outcomes. (Review) (Review)
- Common study formats: The evidence includes randomized controlled trials, which are studies that randomly assign participants to an intervention or comparison group, as well as observational studies, which measure associations without assigning treatment. (Review) (Review)
- Pharmacokinetic characterization status: Pharmacokinetics means how a substance is absorbed, distributed, changed, and cleared by the body, and creatine has human pharmacokinetic data but brain uptake remains more variable and harder to interpret than blood or muscle changes. (Review)
- Regulatory context in the U.S.: FDA’s GRAS Notice Inventory lists creatine monohydrate as GRN 931 and records that FDA had “no questions” regarding the notifier’s GRAS conclusion for the specified food-use context. (FDA)
- Regulatory context in the EU: EFSA concluded in 2024 that the submitted evidence did not establish a cause-and-effect relationship between creatine and the proposed cognitive-function health claim, and Commission Regulation (EU) 2026/1118 reflects non-authorisation of that claim. (EFSA) (EFSA)
- Evidence maturity: The overall human evidence is mature for muscle and training contexts, moderate but mixed for cognition and mood, and still emerging for anti-aging and multi-ingredient longevity combinations. (Review) (Review)
Introduction
Creatine is a compound the body uses to help cells rapidly recycle adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, which is the cell’s main short-term energy currency. (Review) Creatine occurs naturally in the body and is also present in foods, with dietary-intake studies estimating intake from foods in population datasets such as NHANES. (Research)
People often look up creatine because it has a long human research history in exercise performance and a growing research base in brain energy, mood, sleep deprivation, and aging-related muscle outcomes. (Review) Interest in brain and mood research comes from the idea that neurons, meaning nerve cells, also require rapid energy turnover, but human findings remain mixed across different study designs and populations. (Review) (Review)
This article is informational only, describes creatine as a biochemical substance studied in human research, and does not provide medical or dosing advice.
Quick Summary
- Creatine is a naturally occurring compound involved in rapid cellular energy recycling, and human research has studied it in muscle, cognitive health, mental health, sleep-deprivation stress, and aging-related outcomes. (Review)
- The strongest human evidence for creatine is in muscle and resistance-training contexts, while brain and mood evidence is promising in some settings but inconsistent overall. (Review) (Review)
- Cognitive Health studies include trials in vegetarians, older adults, sleep-deprived adults, and healthy young adults, with positive, neutral, and mixed findings depending on population and study design. (Research) (Research)
- Mental Health studies have mainly tested creatine as an adjunct, meaning an add-on, to antidepressants or cognitive behavioral therapy rather than as a stand-alone mood intervention. (Research) (Research)
- Aging and Longevity Research involving creatine is concentrated in older-adult muscle, strength, resistance-training, bone, and cognitive-aging studies rather than direct lifespan or biological-age trials. (Review) (Review)
- Combination studies exist for creatine with protein, essential amino acid formulas, electrolytes, glucose/taurine/electrolyte formulas, antidepressants, cognitive behavioral therapy, and 5-HTP, but most multi-ingredient formulas cannot isolate creatine’s independent contribution. (Research) (Research)
- EFSA did not authorize a proposed EU cognitive-function health claim for creatine based on the submitted evidence, while a separate EU claim exists for creatine with resistance training and muscle strength under specified conditions. (EFSA) (EFSA)
Human Research Findings by Condition
Cognitive Health
Human research on Cognitive Health has studied memory, executive function, intelligence-test performance, sleep-deprivation resilience, and cognitive performance in older adults. (Review) A systematic review found possible cognitive effects, but results varied by population, testing method, and study design. (Review)
Key human study
Dose studied: 5 g/day creatine monohydrate
Population: Young vegetarian adults
Duration: 6 weeks
A double-blind crossover trial studied whether creatine affected cognitive tasks in vegetarian adults, a population that may have lower dietary creatine intake because creatine is mainly obtained from animal-derived foods. The trial reported improved backward digit span, a working-memory task, and Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices, a reasoning test. (Research)
Result: Randomized human trial reported a statistically significant improvement
Evidence strength: Moderate
Study source: (Research)
Additional human study
Dose studied: 10 g/day or 20 g/day creatine
Population: Healthy young adults
Duration: 6 weeks
A randomized double-blind dose-response trial studied whether higher daily creatine intakes improved cognitive performance or changed prefrontal cortex activation, which refers to activity in a brain region involved in attention and executive control. The trial reported no cognitive-performance benefit and no prefrontal-activation benefit in healthy young adults. (Research)
Result: Human clinical study reported no clear effect
Evidence strength: Mixed
Study source: (Research)
Additional human study
Dose studied: 5 g/day creatine
Population: Adults in a preregistered randomized crossover trial
Duration: 6 weeks
A larger modern randomized crossover study tested whether creatine improved cognitive performance across multiple tasks in adults. The study reported no clear overall cognitive benefit, which supports a cautious interpretation of creatine’s cognitive evidence outside specific stress or low-intake contexts. (Research)
Result: Human clinical study reported no clear effect
Evidence strength: Mixed
Study source: (Research)
Stress
Human research relevant to Stress has examined sleep deprivation, which is a controlled stress model where attention, reaction time, mood state, and brain energy markers may worsen after extended wakefulness. (Research) These studies are not general stress-treatment trials, but they are useful for understanding creatine under acute cognitive and physiological strain. (Research)
Key human study
Dose studied: 20 g/day creatine
Population: Healthy adults exposed to 24 hours of sleep deprivation with intermittent exercise
Duration: 7 days of supplementation before testing
A randomized placebo-controlled study tested whether creatine affected cognitive and psychomotor outcomes during sleep deprivation. The study reported less deterioration in random movement generation, choice reaction time, balance, and mood state after 24 hours of sleep deprivation. (Research)
Result: Randomized human trial reported a statistically significant improvement
Evidence strength: Limited
Study source: (Research)
Additional human study
Dose studied: 0.35 g/kg single dose
Population: Healthy adults exposed to 21 hours of sleep deprivation
Duration: Acute single-dose study
A human study used magnetic resonance spectroscopy, a brain-scanning method that can measure certain chemical signals, to examine brain energy markers after a single high creatine dose during sleep deprivation. The study reported changes in brain high-energy phosphate markers and improved cognitive performance during extended wakefulness. (Research)
Result: Human studies observed short-term physiological effects
Evidence strength: Emerging
Study source: (Research)
Additional human study
Dose studied: 0.2 g/kg single dose
Population: Healthy adults exposed to 21 hours of sleep deprivation
Duration: Acute single-dose study
A lower acute-dose study tested whether creatine reduced cognitive deterioration during sleep deprivation. The study reported reduced decline in logic, numerical processing, language processing, and psychomotor vigilance outcomes. (Research)
Result: Human studies observed short-term physiological effects
Evidence strength: Emerging
Study source: (Research)
Mental Health
Human research on Mental Health has mostly studied creatine as an adjunctive intervention, meaning creatine was added to another treatment rather than used alone. (Review) The strongest mood-related signal is in major depressive disorder add-on studies, while bipolar depression and open-label combination evidence remain more limited or mixed. (Research) (Research)
Key human study
Dose studied: 5 g/day creatine
Population: Women with major depressive disorder receiving escitalopram
Duration: 8 weeks
A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial studied creatine as an add-on to escitalopram, an antidepressant in the SSRI class, which means selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. The trial reported faster improvement in depression scores in the creatine group than in the placebo group. (Research)
Result: Randomized human trial reported a statistically significant improvement
Evidence strength: Moderate
Study source: (Research)
Additional human study
Dose studied: 6 g/day creatine
Population: People with bipolar depression receiving adjunctive treatment
Duration: 6 weeks
A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial studied creatine as an add-on treatment in bipolar depression, a mood disorder that includes depressive episodes and a history of mania or hypomania. The trial did not show a statistically significant between-group improvement on the primary depression outcome. (Research)
Result: Human clinical study reported no clear effect
Evidence strength: Mixed
Study source: (Research)
Additional human study
Dose studied: 5 g/day creatine with cognitive behavioral therapy
Population: Adults with depression
Duration: 8 weeks
An exploratory randomized trial tested creatine added to cognitive behavioral therapy, a structured psychotherapy that works on thoughts and behaviors. The trial reported greater improvement in PHQ-9 scores, a depression-symptom questionnaire, in the creatine plus therapy group than in the placebo plus therapy group. (Research)
Result: Randomized human trial reported a statistically significant improvement
Evidence strength: Emerging
Study source: (Research)
Neurological Health
Human research in Neurological Health includes pilot work in Alzheimer’s disease, a neurodegenerative condition that affects memory and thinking. (Research) This evidence is early because the cited Alzheimer’s study was a single-arm pilot, meaning all participants received creatine and there was no placebo comparison group. (Research)
Key human study
Dose studied: 20 g/day creatine monohydrate
Population: People with Alzheimer’s disease
Duration: 8 weeks
A single-arm pilot study examined feasibility, brain creatine changes, and exploratory cognitive outcomes after creatine supplementation in Alzheimer’s disease. The study reported that supplementation was feasible, increased brain creatine, and produced exploratory cognitive changes that require placebo-controlled confirmation. (Research)
Result: Human clinical study reported a modest improvement
Evidence strength: Emerging
Study source: (Research)
Aging and Longevity Research
Human research in Aging and Longevity Research has focused mainly on older-adult muscle, resistance training, bone, and cognitive aging rather than direct lifespan extension. (Review) A systematic review of creatine and cognition in aging found a small and mixed evidence base that included supplementation studies and dietary-intake studies. (Review)
Key human study
Dose studied: 0.1 g/kg/day creatine
Population: Older adults participating in resistance training
Duration: 1 year
A randomized trial studied whether creatine during resistance training affected bone and muscle outcomes in older adults. The study evaluated bone and muscle area and density outcomes, making it relevant to aging-related body composition rather than direct lifespan or biological-age measurement. (Research)
Result: Human clinical studies reported mixed findings
Evidence strength: Moderate
Study source: (Research)
Additional human study
Dose studied: Creatine combined with resistance training
Population: Older adults
Duration: Resistance-training intervention period
A clinical trial in older adults studied creatine together with resistance training and reported greater lean-mass gains than resistance training alone. This finding supports creatine’s better-established aging-related role in muscle adaptation rather than a direct anti-aging claim. (Research)
Result: Randomized human trial reported a statistically significant improvement
Evidence strength: Moderate
Study source: (Research)
Muscle Health
Human research on Muscle Health is the most developed area for creatine, especially when creatine is studied with resistance training. (Review) Meta-analysis evidence in older adults reports improvements in lean tissue mass and strength-related outcomes when creatine is combined with resistance training. (Review)
Key human study
Dose studied: Creatine with resistance training
Population: Older adults
Duration: Resistance-training study periods included in meta-analysis
A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials evaluated whether creatine enhanced resistance-training adaptations in older adults. The analysis reported improvements in lean tissue mass and strength outcomes compared with resistance training without creatine. (Review)
Result: Human clinical study reported a modest improvement
Evidence strength: Strong
Study source: (Review)
Additional human study
Dose studied: Creatine plus whey protein during resistance training
Population: Older adults with frailty
Duration: Resistance-training intervention
A randomized trial studied creatine and whey protein together during resistance training in older adults with frailty. The study reported that co-supplementation was well tolerated and did not report adverse events, but the combination design makes it difficult to isolate creatine’s independent contribution. (Research)
Result: Human clinical study reported a modest improvement
Evidence strength: Limited
Study source: (Research)
Bone Health
Human research on Bone Health has examined whether creatine affects bone outcomes, often in older adults and sometimes alongside resistance training. (Research) The bone evidence is less consistent than muscle evidence, and reviews have generally treated bone outcomes as an area needing further study. (Review)
Key human study
Dose studied: 3 g/day creatine
Population: Older women
Duration: 2 years
A randomized placebo-controlled trial studied creatine supplementation for bone health in older women. The study provides long-duration human evidence for bone outcomes, but bone effects have not become as consistently supported as creatine’s resistance-training muscle outcomes. (Research)
Result: Human clinical studies reported mixed findings
Evidence strength: Limited
Study source: (Research)
Additional human study
Dose studied: 0.1 g/kg/day creatine with resistance training
Population: Older adults
Duration: 1 year
A resistance-training study in older adults measured bone geometry and density-related endpoints together with muscle outcomes. The study is relevant to Bone Health, but its combined exercise-and-supplement context means the findings should be interpreted as part of a training intervention rather than as creatine alone. (Research)
Result: Human clinical studies reported mixed findings
Evidence strength: Limited
Study source: (Research)
Kidney Health
Human Kidney Health research is important because creatine can increase serum creatinine, a blood marker often used to estimate kidney filtration, without necessarily meaning kidney damage. (Review) Systematic reviews report no clear adverse effect on glomerular filtration rate, which is an estimate of how well the kidneys filter blood, but they also call for more long-term renal safety data. (Review) (Review)
Key human study
Dose studied: Multiple creatine dosing protocols across trials
Population: Human trial participants included in kidney-function meta-analysis
Duration: Varied by trial
A systematic review and meta-analysis examined creatine supplementation and kidney-function markers. The review reported modest increases in serum creatinine but did not find an adverse effect on glomerular filtration rate in the included evidence. (Review)
Result: Human clinical studies reported mixed findings
Evidence strength: Moderate
Study source: (Review)
Additional human study
Dose studied: ≥2.0 g/day dietary creatine compared with <1.0 g/day
Population: U.S. adults in NHANES 2017–2018
Duration: Cross-sectional dietary analysis
An observational study examined dietary creatine intake and kidney-function classification using population data. The study reported that higher dietary creatine intake was not significantly associated with failing kidneys compared with lower dietary intake. (Research)
Result: Observational human studies reported an association
Evidence strength: Observational
Study source: (Research)
Dosage & Study Snapshot (Research Context)
Human creatine exposure has been studied through dietary-intake estimates, daily supplemental creatine, loading-style supplemental protocols, weight-based single-dose studies, and multi-ingredient formulas. (Research) Dietary exposure is usually measured in grams per day from food records, while supplementation trials often administer creatine monohydrate in fixed daily gram amounts or body-weight-adjusted doses. (Review) These study exposures are research contexts and should not be read as personal dosing instructions.
0 g/day dietary creatine:
Some older adults in NHANES had no estimated dietary creatine intake, which provides the lowest documented human exposure in this evidence set. This exposure level came from diet, not supplementation, and was based on population dietary assessment rather than an assigned intervention. The study reported that 19.8% of U.S. adults aged 65 or older consumed no dietary creatine. This band matters because it shows that real-world dietary exposure can range from none to more than 1 g/day before supplementation is considered. (Research)
Result: Observational association
Evidence strength: Observational
Notes / limitations: Dietary estimates can misclassify intake because they depend on reported food consumption.
0.36 ± 0.31 g/day dietary creatine:
A low dietary-intake category in older adults averaged 0.36 g/day, with a median of 0.33 g/day. This was an observational intake estimate, meaning researchers measured reported intake rather than assigning participants to consume creatine. The context was older-adult nutrition, not cognitive or mood treatment. This band helps distinguish low habitual intake from supplemental exposures used in trials. (Research)
Result: Observational association
Evidence strength: Observational
Notes / limitations: This exposure band describes intake patterns and does not prove that changing intake would change health outcomes.
0.42 ± 0.26 g/day in women and 0.67 ± 0.39 g/day in men:
A depression-risk analysis using NHANES data estimated average dietary creatine intake at 0.42 g/day in women and 0.67 g/day in men. The study examined dietary creatine and depression-risk associations rather than assigning creatine supplementation. It reported lower depression-risk associations with higher dietary creatine intake, especially in sex-stratified analysis among females. This band is important for mood research because it reflects food-level exposure rather than supplement-level exposure. (Research)
Result: Observational association
Evidence strength: Observational
Notes / limitations: Observational diet studies cannot establish that creatine itself caused the lower depression-risk association.
>0.95 g/day dietary creatine:
An NHANES study in adults aged 60 or older used >0.95 g/day as a higher dietary-intake threshold. Researchers compared cognitive-function test performance across estimated dietary creatine categories. Adults above this threshold scored higher on a cognitive-function measure than peers with lower estimated intake. This band is useful because it connects habitual dietary exposure with cognitive testing in older adults, while still remaining observational. (Research)
Result: Observational association
Evidence strength: Observational
Notes / limitations: The study cannot determine whether dietary creatine, overall diet quality, protein intake, or another factor explains the association.
≥1.00 g/day dietary creatine:
A separate analysis in adults aged 65 or older compared those consuming at least 1.00 g/day of dietary creatine with those below that level. The study examined self-reported medical conditions, so it does not provide direct clinical trial evidence. The exposure context was diet, not supplementation. This band is useful because it marks a common population-research threshold for comparing higher and lower dietary creatine intake. (Research)
Result: Observational association
Evidence strength: Observational
Notes / limitations: Self-reported medical conditions can differ from clinically confirmed diagnoses.
≥2.0 g/day dietary creatine:
An NHANES 2017–2018 analysis compared adults consuming at least 2.0 g/day dietary creatine with adults consuming less than 1.0 g/day. The study focused on kidney-function classification rather than cognition or mood. Higher dietary creatine was not significantly associated with failing kidneys compared with lower intake. This band helps separate high food-based intake from supplemental intake in kidney-safety interpretation. (Research)
Result: Neutral overall findings
Evidence strength: Observational
Notes / limitations: Cross-sectional kidney data cannot replace long-term controlled safety studies.
2.2–20 g/day supplemental creatine:
A systematic review and meta-analysis of memory studies included supplemental creatine protocols ranging from 2.2 g/day to 20 g/day. The review evaluated healthy individuals and reported an overall memory benefit, with stronger subgroup findings in older adults than in younger adults. This broad dose band reflects multiple trials rather than a single fixed protocol. The range is relevant for Cognitive Health, but heterogeneity across tasks, populations, and durations limits precision. (Review)
Result: Modest improvement
Evidence strength: Moderate
Notes / limitations: A meta-analysis range does not identify one optimal dose or one uniform effect across all populations.
3 g/day supplemental creatine:
A 2-year randomized placebo-controlled trial studied 3 g/day creatine in older women for Bone Health outcomes. This dose is lower than many cognitive loading-style or sleep-deprivation protocols. The study is important because it provides long-duration human supplementation data in an older female population. The main interpretation is that bone-related creatine evidence remains less consistent than muscle-related evidence. (Research)
Result: Mixed findings
Evidence strength: Limited
Notes / limitations: Bone outcomes may depend on exercise, baseline nutrition, age, and study duration.
3 g/day creatine plus leucine, L-carnitine, and vitamin D3:
One multi-ingredient study gave older adults 3 g/day creatine with 2 g leucine, 1.5 g L-carnitine, and vitamin D3. Leucine is an essential amino acid involved in muscle protein synthesis, L-carnitine is a compound involved in fatty-acid transport, and vitamin D3 is a vitamin involved in calcium and muscle physiology. The 8-week trial reported improvements in lean body mass and functional muscle strength versus placebo. This band belongs in combination context because the formula prevents attribution to creatine alone. (Research)
Result: Statistically significant improvement
Evidence strength: Limited
Notes / limitations: Multi-ingredient formulas cannot identify which ingredient caused which effect.
5 g/day supplemental creatine:
A 5 g/day creatine protocol has been studied in Cognitive Health and Mental Health contexts. In young vegetarian adults, 5 g/day for 6 weeks improved selected cognitive measures, while in women with major depressive disorder, 5 g/day added to escitalopram for 8 weeks accelerated depression-score improvement. These findings are from different populations and different outcomes, so they should not be collapsed into one general brain or mood conclusion. This dose band is important because it appears repeatedly in human trials across research domains. (Research) (Research)
Result: Mixed findings
Evidence strength: Moderate
Notes / limitations: Effects at 5 g/day appear context-dependent rather than uniform.
5 g/day creatine plus cognitive behavioral therapy:
An exploratory depression trial studied 5 g/day creatine added to cognitive behavioral therapy for 8 weeks. Cognitive behavioral therapy is a structured psychological treatment that works on patterns of thinking and behavior. The trial reported greater improvement in PHQ-9 depression scores in the creatine plus therapy group than in the placebo plus therapy group. This study is relevant to combination research but should not be interpreted as evidence that creatine alone treats depression. (Research)
Result: Statistically significant improvement
Evidence strength: Emerging
Notes / limitations: The study tested creatine as an add-on to therapy, not as a stand-alone intervention.
5 g/day creatine plus 5-HTP:
An open-label pilot study tested 5 g/day creatine with 5-HTP in adult women with SSRI/SNRI-resistant depression. 5-HTP means 5-hydroxytryptophan, a serotonin-related compound, and open-label means participants and researchers knew what was being taken. The study reported a potential signal but called for randomized controlled trials. This band is relevant to mood-combination research but remains preliminary. (Research)
Result: Preliminary signal
Evidence strength: Emerging
Notes / limitations: Open-label studies are vulnerable to expectation effects because there is no blinded placebo comparison.
5 g/day or 10 g/day adjunctive creatine:
A pilot dose-finding randomized trial studied 5 g/day and 10 g/day creatine as adjunctive treatment in people with major depression who had not responded to antidepressant treatment. The study was designed to explore dose and feasibility rather than to provide definitive clinical guidance. This band is useful because it directly compares two supplemental creatine levels in a psychiatric research context. The evidence remains limited because the trial was small and short. (Research)
Result: Mixed findings
Evidence strength: Limited
Notes / limitations: Dose-finding studies help design later trials but do not settle efficacy.
6 g/day adjunctive creatine:
A randomized placebo-controlled trial studied 6 g/day creatine in bipolar depression as adjunctive therapy. Bipolar depression differs from unipolar major depression because it occurs in bipolar disorder, where manic or hypomanic episodes are part of the condition history. The trial did not show a statistically significant benefit on the primary depression comparison. This dose band is important because it shows that positive mood findings in unipolar depression do not automatically generalize to bipolar depression. (Research)
Result: No clear effect
Evidence strength: Mixed
Notes / limitations: Psychiatric diagnosis and background treatment may strongly influence results.
10 g/day and 20 g/day supplemental creatine:
A randomized dose-response trial studied 10 g/day and 20 g/day creatine for 6 weeks in healthy young adults. The study measured cognitive performance and prefrontal cortex activation. It reported no clear cognitive-performance benefit and no prefrontal-activation benefit. This band is important because higher doses did not necessarily produce stronger cognitive effects in healthy young adults. (Research)
Result: No clear effect
Evidence strength: Mixed
Notes / limitations: A higher dose does not guarantee cognitive benefit in unstressed healthy populations.
20 g/day loading-style creatine:
Short-term 20 g/day studies have been used in sleep-deprivation and older-adult cognition research. In sleep-deprived adults, 20 g/day for 7 days reduced deterioration in selected cognitive, balance, and mood-state outcomes after 24 hours of sleep deprivation. In elderly participants, 20 g/day for 1 week was reported to improve selected cognitive tasks. These findings are most relevant to short-term research models and specific populations rather than everyday cognitive claims. (Research) (Research)
Result: Statistically significant improvement
Evidence strength: Limited
Notes / limitations: Short-term loading studies do not establish long-term cognitive effects.
0.2 g/kg single-dose creatine:
A single-dose study used 0.2 g/kg creatine during 21 hours of sleep deprivation. Weight-based dosing means the amount was calculated from each participant’s body weight. The study reported reduced deterioration in logic, numerical, language-processing, and psychomotor vigilance outcomes. This band is relevant to acute brain-energy research, not long-term daily use. (Research)
Result: Preliminary signal
Evidence strength: Emerging
Notes / limitations: Acute sleep-deprivation findings may not generalize to rested individuals.
0.35 g/kg single-dose creatine:
A higher acute study used 0.35 g/kg creatine and measured brain energy markers during 21 hours of sleep deprivation. Brain energy markers were measured using magnetic resonance spectroscopy, a scanning method that can detect certain chemical signals in the brain. The study reported altered high-energy phosphate markers and improved cognitive performance during sleep deprivation. This band supports a plausible brain-energy mechanism but remains an acute experimental context. (Research)
Result: Preliminary signal
Evidence strength: Emerging
Notes / limitations: Acute mechanistic results should not be treated as proof of broad cognitive benefit.
Key Takeaways from Human Research
- Creatine’s best-established human evidence is in Muscle Health, especially when combined with resistance training, while Cognitive Health and Mental Health findings are more population-specific and mixed. (Review) (Review)
- Cognitive Health trials show positive findings in some vegetarian, older-adult, and sleep-deprivation contexts, but neutral findings in some healthy young adult studies and a larger preregistered crossover trial. (Research) (Research)
- Mental Health research has mostly evaluated creatine as an add-on to antidepressants or psychotherapy, with stronger early signals in unipolar depression than in bipolar depression. (Research) (Research)
- Aging and Longevity Research with creatine should be described mainly as older-adult muscle, resistance-training, bone, and cognitive-aging research, not as proven lifespan-extension evidence. (Review) (Review)
- Combination studies are available for creatine with protein, essential amino acid formulas, electrolytes, antidepressants, psychotherapy, and 5-HTP, but many formulas contain several active ingredients and cannot isolate creatine’s effect. (Research) (Research)
- Kidney-safety reviews report no clear adverse effect on filtration-rate estimates in studied populations, but long-term and higher-risk population evidence remains an important limitation. (Review) (Review)
Origin & Natural Occurrence
Creatine is produced in the body and stored largely in tissues with high and fluctuating energy needs. (Review) It is also obtained from dietary sources, and population studies estimate dietary creatine intake from food records rather than from supplement logs. (Research)
Dietary creatine exposure varies widely because people differ in meat and fish intake, total energy intake, age, sex, and eating pattern. (Research) Vegetarian adults have been a specific Cognitive Health study population because lower animal-food intake can correspond to lower dietary creatine exposure. (Research)
Supplemental creatine used in human trials is commonly creatine monohydrate, a form in which creatine is bound with one water molecule. (Review) FDA substance-registration data also identify creatine monohydrate as a listed substance, and FDA’s GRAS notice inventory includes creatine monohydrate under GRN 931 for a specified food-use context. (FDA) (FDA)
How It Behaves in the Body
Creatine helps cells handle short bursts of energy demand by acting like a rechargeable energy buffer. (Review) The body uses creatine and phosphocreatine, which is creatine carrying a phosphate group, to help regenerate ATP, the molecule cells use for immediate energy. (Review)
In plain terms, phosphocreatine can donate a phosphate group to help rebuild ATP when cells need energy quickly. (Review) This is most obvious in skeletal muscle, but brain cells also have high energy demands, which is why creatine has been studied in Cognitive Health, sleep deprivation, depression, and neurological contexts. (Review) (Research)
The brain evidence is harder to interpret than muscle evidence because cognitive outcomes depend on baseline diet, sleep status, age, task type, brain uptake, and underlying health status. (Review) Sleep-deprivation studies are especially relevant to mechanism because they test cognition during acute energy stress, and some studies have measured brain high-energy phosphate markers directly. (Research)
In Mental Health research, the proposed rationale is related to brain energy metabolism, but that does not mean creatine has a proven stand-alone antidepressant effect. (Review) The best human depression trials studied creatine as an adjunct to established treatments, such as escitalopram or cognitive behavioral therapy. (Research) (Research)
What is well established is creatine’s role in the creatine-phosphocreatine energy system and its human research base in exercise and muscle contexts. (Review) What remains less settled is whether creatine reliably improves cognition, mood, or aging-related outcomes across broad general populations. (Review) (Review)
Absorption & Delivery Formats
Oral immediate-release: Oral creatine monohydrate is the main format used in many human studies, including cognition, depression, sleep-deprivation, and muscle research. (Research) (Research) Immediate-release oral use means the ingredient is swallowed and absorbed through the digestive tract without a specialized delayed-release system. (Review)
Oral extended-release: Extended-release means a formulation is designed to release the ingredient slowly over time, but the collected human creatine evidence is not centered on extended-release delivery. (Review) The main human trials in this evidence set used standard oral creatine formats rather than extended-release formulations. (Research)
Sublingual: Sublingual delivery means placing a substance under the tongue for absorption through oral tissues, but the cited human creatine studies did not establish sublingual creatine as a major evidence-based delivery format. (Review) The practical evidence base is therefore oral supplementation and diet-based exposure rather than sublingual delivery. (Research)
Transdermal: Transdermal delivery means absorption through the skin, and the collected human creatine evidence does not support transdermal delivery as a major research format. (Review) Human studies in this evidence set primarily used oral creatine or dietary-intake estimates. (Research)
Injectable / IV: Injectable or IV delivery means administration by needle into tissue or a vein, and it is not the standard format in the human supplement-style studies reviewed here. (Review) The evidence collected for cognition, mood, aging, safety, and combinations is primarily oral. (Review)
Quick Facts at a Glance
Onset reported: Acute sleep-deprivation studies suggest some cognitive and brain-energy effects can be observed within a single experimental session after a high oral dose. (Research) Longer daily studies in cognition, mood, and muscle contexts usually assessed outcomes after weeks or months rather than minutes or hours. (Research) (Review)
Time to peak (Tmax): Tmax means the time it takes for a substance to reach its highest measured blood concentration after dosing. The collected article evidence does not include a dedicated creatine Tmax trial as a central source, so this section should be interpreted cautiously rather than as a precise pharmacokinetic value. (Review)
Half-life (t½): Half-life means the time required for the measured amount of a substance to fall by half in a biological compartment such as blood. The human sources emphasized clinical outcomes, dietary exposure, safety, and brain or muscle effects rather than a single clinically decisive creatine half-life value. (Review)
Typical duration: Human studies in this evidence set range from single-dose acute sleep-deprivation experiments to 6-week cognitive trials, 8-week depression trials, 1-year older-adult training studies, and 2-year bone-health research. (Research) (Research) (Research)
Absorption routes studied: The main studied route is oral exposure, either through diet or through swallowed creatine supplements. (Research) The cited human intervention studies did not establish sublingual, transdermal, or injectable creatine as common research formats for supplement-style use. (Review)
Formulation differences: Creatine monohydrate is the most common research form, while some studies use other forms or multi-ingredient formulas that include creatine. (Review) In multi-ingredient studies, formulation differences matter because creatine cannot be isolated from ingredients such as protein, leucine, carnitine, vitamin D, electrolytes, or caffeine. (Research) (Research)
Variability drivers: Human results may vary because of baseline diet, vegetarian status, age, training status, sleep deprivation, mental-health diagnosis, and whether creatine is used alone or with another intervention. (Research) (Research) Task selection also matters in Cognitive Health studies because memory, reasoning, reaction time, and executive function do not always respond the same way. (Review)
Tolerance / adaptation: Tolerance means a substance produces less effect over time after repeated exposure, but the collected evidence does not establish a clear tolerance pattern for creatine in cognition or mood. (Review) Longer trials are better interpreted as repeated-use studies rather than proof of tolerance or lack of tolerance. (Research)
Evidence strength snapshot: The evidence is strongest for Muscle Health and resistance-training contexts, moderate but mixed for Cognitive Health, emerging for Mental Health adjunctive use, and limited for direct anti-aging claims. (Review) (Review) (Review)
Other Physiological Contexts Studied (If Applicable)
- Women’s Health: An 8-week randomized trial in perimenopausal and menopausal women examined creatine hydrochloride and creatine ethyl ester for cognition, clinical outcomes, and brain creatine levels. (Research)
- Nutrition and Deficiencies: Vegetarian adults have been studied in creatine cognition research because dietary creatine exposure is lower when animal-food intake is low. (Research)
- Cardiometabolic and general health context: An older-adult dietary analysis compared medical-condition risk across dietary creatine intake groups, but this evidence is observational and not a supplementation trial. (Research)
- Exercise performance combinations: Creatine with electrolytes or glucose/taurine/electrolytes has been studied for sport-performance outcomes, not primarily for brain or mood outcomes. (Research) (Research)
Safety, Interactions & Regulation
Creatine safety research includes kidney-function analyses, adverse-event reviews, performance-study safety labs, and older-adult tolerability data. (Review) A kidney-function systematic review and meta-analysis reported modest serum creatinine increases but did not find adverse effects on glomerular filtration rate in the included evidence. (Review)
Serum creatinine is a blood marker used in kidney-function estimates, and it can rise when creatine intake changes because creatinine is related to creatine metabolism. (Review) This means creatinine changes should be interpreted carefully rather than automatically treated as kidney injury. (Review)
A randomized-trial meta-analysis concluded that further long-term randomized controlled trials beyond one year are needed to better assess renal safety. (Review) A structured review and dose-response analysis examined whether creatine dose and duration were associated with side-effect reporting, which is relevant because safety interpretation depends on dose, duration, and population. (Review)
Older-adult safety interpretation should be cautious because aging populations may differ in kidney function, medications, frailty, and baseline health. (Review) A review focused on older adults described creatine monohydrate as generally safe in older-adult studies but called for older-adult-specific safety research using pharmacovigilance methods, which are systems for tracking side effects after wider use. (Review)
In a creatine plus cognitive behavioral therapy trial for depression, discontinuation and adverse-event outcomes were comparable between creatine and placebo groups over 8 weeks. (Research) In an older-adult frailty study, creatine plus whey protein during resistance training was reported as well tolerated and free of adverse events. (Research)
Interaction evidence is most direct for research combinations rather than for broad medication-safety claims. (Review) Creatine has been studied as an adjunct to escitalopram, antidepressant treatment, cognitive behavioral therapy, and 5-HTP, but these studies do not establish that every psychiatric medication or mood-related ingredient combination is safe or effective. (Research) (Research)
U.S. regulatory context: FDA’s GRAS Notice Inventory lists creatine monohydrate as GRN 931 and records that FDA had no questions regarding the notifier’s GRAS conclusion for the specified use. (FDA) FDA substance-registration data identify creatine monohydrate and link it to a GRAS notification record. (FDA)
EU regulatory context: EFSA’s 2024 opinion concluded that the submitted evidence did not establish a cause-and-effect relationship between creatine and the proposed cognitive-function claim. (EFSA) Commission Regulation (EU) 2026/1118 reflects the non-authorisation of that creatine cognitive-function health claim. (EFSA) EFSA’s earlier evaluation and Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/672 support an authorised claim for creatine in combination with resistance training and improved muscle strength under specified conditions. (EFSA) (EFSA)
Evidence Overview
The human evidence for creatine is strongest in Muscle Health and resistance-training contexts, while evidence for Cognitive Health, Mental Health, and Aging and Longevity Research is promising in selected settings but less consistent. (Review) (Review) The cognitive literature includes randomized trials, acute sleep-deprivation experiments, dietary-intake studies, and small clinical or pilot studies, and the findings vary by age, diet pattern, sleep status, and testing method. (Review) Confidence is not higher because many brain and mood studies are small, short, population-specific, or adjunctive rather than broad stand-alone trials. (Review)
In Cognitive Health, creatine showed positive findings in vegetarian adults, elderly adults, and sleep-deprivation studies, but other trials in healthy young adults reported no clear cognitive benefit. (Research) (Research) A memory meta-analysis reported an overall memory benefit with stronger subgroup findings in older adults, but systematic reviews also emphasize heterogeneity across tasks and populations. (Review) (Review) EFSA’s 2024 cognitive-function opinion concluded that the evidence submitted for the proposed EU claim did not establish a cause-and-effect relationship, which supports cautious public-facing wording. (EFSA)
In Mental Health, creatine has been studied mostly as an add-on to existing treatments rather than as a stand-alone intervention. (Review) A randomized trial in women with major depressive disorder reported faster improvement when creatine was added to escitalopram, while a bipolar depression trial did not show a statistically significant benefit on the primary depression comparison. (Research) (Research) Creatine plus CBT and creatine plus 5-HTP are notable combination contexts, but the CBT trial was exploratory and the 5-HTP study was open-label. (Research) (Research)
In Aging and Longevity Research, creatine evidence is better described as older-adult muscle, strength, resistance training, bone, and cognitive-aging research rather than direct lifespan-extension evidence. (Review) (Review) Older-adult meta-analysis evidence supports lean mass and strength outcomes when creatine is paired with resistance training, whereas bone and cognition findings remain less settled. (Review) (Review) A healthy-aging protocol involving creatine and other interventions may inform future combination research, but protocol-stage evidence should not be described as completed efficacy evidence. (Research)
Combination evidence is important but difficult to interpret because many formulas contain several active ingredients. (Research) Creatine with essential amino acid or protein-based formulas has been studied in older adults, and creatine with electrolytes or glucose/taurine/electrolytes has been studied mainly for sport-performance outcomes. (Research) (Research) Direct completed human evidence was not identified for creatine plus Lion’s Mane, creatine plus theanine, or isolated creatine plus NMN or urolithin A combinations for brain or mood outcomes in the evidence set used for this article. (Research)
Evidence Confidence Classification
Moderate is the overall human evidence classification for creatine because the ingredient has many human studies and strong Muscle Health evidence, but Cognitive Health, Mental Health, and Aging and Longevity Research findings remain mixed, context-dependent, or emerging. (Review) (Review)
The strongest confidence belongs to Muscle Health and resistance-training outcomes, where reviews and meta-analyses support improvements in lean mass or strength-related outcomes. (Review) The Cognitive Health evidence is Moderate to Mixed because some trials and meta-analyses report benefits, while other randomized trials report no clear effect. (Review) (Research) The Mental Health evidence is Emerging because it is based mainly on adjunctive trials, small studies, and heterogeneous psychiatric populations. (Review) The Aging and Longevity Research evidence is Limited to Moderate depending on the endpoint because older-adult muscle outcomes are better supported than direct anti-aging or lifespan outcomes. (Review)
Similar Ingredients & Comparators
Similar supplement-style ingredients:
- Essential amino acids
- Leucine
- Whey protein
- Vitamin D
- L-carnitine
- Electrolytes
- Taurine
- 5-HTP
- Tyrosine
- Vitamin B12
- Omega-3 fatty acids
- NMN
- Urolithin A
Medical / pharma comparator categories:
- Antidepressants
- Psychotherapy adjuncts
- Cognitive-disorder clinical interventions
- Resistance-training rehabilitation programs
- Medical nutrition therapy
- Kidney-function monitoring tools
Combination Context
Creatine + Essential Amino Acids:
Creatine has been studied in multi-ingredient formulas that include essential amino acids, meaning amino acids the body must obtain from diet. A healthy-aging RCT involving older adults studied a multi-ingredient formula with creatine and other nutrients, but attribution to creatine alone is not possible because several active ingredients were included. (Research)
Creatine + Leucine + L-Carnitine + Vitamin D3:
A randomized trial in adults aged 55–70 studied 3 g/day creatine with leucine, L-carnitine, and vitamin D3. The formula improved lean body mass and functional muscle strength versus placebo, but the multi-ingredient design prevents isolating creatine’s independent effect. (Research)
Creatine + Whey Protein:
Creatine and whey protein have been studied together during resistance training in older adults with frailty. The study reported that the combination was well tolerated and free of adverse events, but it cannot determine whether creatine, whey protein, resistance training, or their combination drove the findings. (Research)
Creatine + Whey Protein + Vitamin D + Omega-3 + Calcium:
A multi-ingredient intervention in older men included creatine with whey protein, vitamin D, omega-3 fatty acids, and calcium. The study context was muscle and exercise adaptation, and a related cognitive analysis examined the same broad nutrition-and-exercise framework rather than an isolated creatine brain stack. (Research) (Research)
Creatine + Electrolytes:
Creatine-electrolyte combinations have been tested in randomized sport-performance studies. These studies are relevant to hydration and exercise-performance contexts, but they do not establish brain, mood, or anti-aging benefits for creatine-electrolyte stacks. (Research) (Research)
Creatine + Glucose + Taurine + Electrolytes:
A double-blind study in NCAA football players compared a glucose, taurine, and electrolyte supplement with and without creatine. The group receiving creatine in the formula had greater gains in fat/bone-free mass, lifting volume, and sprint performance, but the study was an athletic-performance trial rather than a brain or mood trial. (Research)
Creatine + Tyrosine + Vitamin B12:
A pre-workout RCT included creatine nitrate with N-acetyl-L-tyrosine, caffeine, vitamin B12, and other ingredients. The study measured cognitive function, exercise performance, and safety markers, but the multi-ingredient formula prevents any conclusion that creatine plus tyrosine or creatine plus B12 caused the measured effects. (Research)
Creatine + Antidepressants:
Creatine has been studied as an add-on to escitalopram and in antidepressant non-response contexts. The escitalopram trial reported faster improvement in women with major depressive disorder, while pilot dose-finding work supports continued caution about generalizing across antidepressant populations. (Research) (Research)
Creatine + Cognitive Behavioral Therapy:
Creatine has been tested with cognitive behavioral therapy in an exploratory randomized depression trial. The study reported greater PHQ-9 improvement with creatine plus therapy than placebo plus therapy, but this is adjunctive psychotherapy evidence rather than a stand-alone creatine mood claim. (Research)
Creatine + 5-HTP:
Creatine plus 5-HTP was studied in an open-label pilot involving adult women with SSRI/SNRI-resistant depression. The study reported a preliminary signal and called for randomized controlled trials, so the evidence remains early. (Research)
FAQ
What is creatine?
Creatine is a naturally occurring compound involved in rapid cellular energy recycling. (Review) It helps form phosphocreatine, which is a stored energy-buffering form of creatine used to help regenerate ATP. (Review) Humans make creatine internally and also obtain it from dietary sources. (Research)
What does human research study creatine for?
Human research studies creatine most often for Muscle Health, exercise performance, Cognitive Health, Mental Health, sleep-deprivation stress, and aging-related muscle or bone outcomes. (Review) Cognitive studies include vegetarian adults, older adults, sleep-deprived adults, and healthy young adults. (Review) Mental Health studies mainly examine creatine as an adjunct to antidepressants, psychotherapy, or other mood-related interventions. (Review)
What are the best-supported uses?
The best-supported research area for creatine is Muscle Health, especially resistance-training adaptation. (Review) A meta-analysis in older adults reported improved lean tissue mass and strength outcomes when creatine was paired with resistance training. (Review) EU regulation also authorizes a claim for creatine in combination with resistance training and improved muscle strength under specified conditions. (EFSA)
Where is evidence mixed or limited?
Evidence is mixed for Cognitive Health because some trials report benefits while other randomized trials report no clear effect. (Research) (Research) Evidence is emerging for Mental Health because most studies are adjunctive, small, or population-specific. (Review) Evidence is limited for direct anti-aging claims because human studies mainly measure muscle, bone, cognition, or training outcomes rather than lifespan or biological aging itself. (Review)
How quickly does creatine act?
Some acute sleep-deprivation studies reported cognitive or brain-energy effects during a single experimental session after weight-based oral creatine dosing. (Research) Many daily supplementation studies assessed outcomes after several weeks, including 6-week cognition trials and 8-week depression trials. (Research) (Research) Long-duration older-adult studies have assessed outcomes over one year or two years depending on the endpoint. (Research) (Research)
What affects absorption and variability?
Creatine study results can vary by dietary creatine intake, vegetarian status, age, sleep deprivation, training status, and whether creatine is used alone or with another intervention. (Research) (Research) Brain-related outcomes can also vary because memory, reaction time, executive function, and reasoning tests measure different cognitive processes. (Review) Multi-ingredient studies add variability because ingredients such as protein, amino acids, electrolytes, caffeine, and vitamins may contribute to outcomes. (Research)
Is tolerance reported?
Tolerance means a substance produces less effect after repeated exposure, but the human evidence reviewed here does not establish a clear tolerance pattern for creatine in cognition or mood. (Review) Some studies tested daily use for weeks or years, but repeated use is not the same as proving tolerance. (Research) (Research) The available evidence is better described by outcome area, population, and duration than by a confirmed tolerance model. (Review)
Why do studies disagree?
Creatine studies may disagree because they test different populations, outcomes, doses, and baseline conditions. (Review) Vegetarian adults, older adults, sleep-deprived adults, and healthy young adults may not respond similarly because their baseline creatine status and cognitive demands differ. (Research) (Research) Mood studies may also differ because major depressive disorder, antidepressant non-response, and bipolar depression are clinically different conditions. (Research) (Research)
What ingredients is creatine commonly combined with and why?
Creatine has been studied with protein, essential amino acid formulas, leucine, L-carnitine, vitamin D, electrolytes, glucose, taurine, antidepressants, cognitive behavioral therapy, and 5-HTP. (Research) (Research) These combinations are usually studied to examine muscle adaptation, sport performance, hydration-related performance, or adjunctive mood outcomes. (Research) (Research) Multi-ingredient formulas cannot prove which ingredient caused the outcome unless the study design isolates each component. (Research)
Is there evidence for creatine plus Lion’s Mane, theanine, NMN, or urolithin A?
The collected evidence did not identify completed PubMed-indexed human outcome trials directly testing creatine plus Lion’s Mane or creatine plus theanine for brain or mood outcomes. (Research) The collected evidence also did not identify completed isolated human outcome trials for creatine plus NMN or creatine plus urolithin A as a two-ingredient anti-aging stack. (Research) A protocol-stage healthy-aging study includes creatine within a broader multi-intervention framework, but protocol records should not be cited as completed evidence of efficacy. (Research)
What foods naturally contain creatine?
Creatine is obtained from dietary sources, and population studies estimate creatine intake from reported foods. (Research) Vegetarian adults have been studied in creatine cognition research because diets without meat or fish may provide lower creatine exposure. (Research) Dietary-intake studies in U.S. adults show that creatine exposure can range from none to more than 1 g/day depending on eating pattern and intake level. (Research)
How is creatine regulated?
In the U.S., FDA’s GRAS Notice Inventory lists creatine monohydrate as GRN 931 and records that FDA had no questions about the notifier’s GRAS conclusion for the specified use. (FDA) In the EU, EFSA concluded in 2024 that the submitted evidence did not establish a cause-and-effect relationship for the proposed creatine cognitive-function claim. (EFSA) The EU separately authorizes a creatine claim related to improved muscle strength when creatine is combined with resistance training under specified conditions. (EFSA)
Resources
- International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation — Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition / PMC — https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5469049/
- Creatine supplementation and cognitive function in healthy individuals: systematic review — PubMed — https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29704637/
- Creatine supplementation and memory in healthy individuals: systematic review and meta-analysis — PMC — https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9999677/
- Creatine and cognition in aging: systematic review — PMC — https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12793482/
- Creatine for depressive disorder: systematic review of randomized trials — PMC — https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12823350/
- Creatine and kidney function: systematic review and meta-analysis — PMC — https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12590749/
- EFSA 2024 scientific opinion on creatine and cognitive function — EFSA Journal — https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2024.9100
- Commission Regulation (EU) 2026/1118 on non-authorisation of creatine cognitive-function claim — EUR-Lex — https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2026/1118/oj/eng
- Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/672 on creatine and resistance-training claim — EUR-Lex — https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.L_.2017.097.01.0024.01.ENG
- FDA GRAS Notice Inventory entry for creatine monohydrate GRN 931 — FDA — https://www.hfpappexternal.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/index.cfm?id=931&set=GRASNotices
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